Limit consumption of red and processed meat

Eat no more than moderate amounts of red meat and little, if any, processed meat

Overview of evidence

There is strong evidence that consumption of either red or processed meat are both causes of colorectal cancer.

Goal

If you eat red meat, limit consumption to no more than about three portions per week. This is equivalent to about 350–500g (about 12–18oz) cooked weight. 500g of cooked red meat is equivalent to 700–750 g of raw meat
Consume very little, if any, processed meat

Evidence

There is convincing evidence that consumption of processed meat is a cause of colorectal cancer.
Consumption of red meat is probably a cause of colorectal cancer.

The term ‘red meat’ means all types of muscle meat from a mammal, including beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, horse, and goat.

The term ‘processed meat’ refers to meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation.

Processed meat can include ham, salami, bacon and some sausages (for example, frankfurters and chorizo). Minced meats such as fresh sausages may sometimes, though not always, count as processed meat.

Red meat can be a valuable source of nutrients, in particular protein, iron, zinc and vitamin B12, but is not an essential part of a healthy diet. People who choose to eat meat-free diets can obtain adequate amounts of these nutrients through careful food selection.

For those who wish to avoid eating red and processed meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy are valuable sources of protein and micronutrients. People can also obtain adequate protein from a mixture of beans and pulses (legumes) and cereals (grains).

Iron is present in many plant foods, though it is less bioavailable than it is in meat.

The Recommendation on the amount of red meat to consume balances the advantages of consuming red meat (as a source of essential macro- and micro-nutrients) and the disadvantages (an increased risk of colorectal cancer). The evidence on processed meat is even more clear-cut, with no level of intake associated with a lack of colorectal cancer risk.

High consumers of red and processed meat who reduce their intakes are likely to gain the greatest benefit from following this Recommendation.

Additional information

In general, fish is a good substitute for red and processed meat. However, there is strong evidence that consuming Cantonese style salted fish increases the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer.

Cantonese-style salted fish is characterised by using less salt and a higher degree of fermentation, during the drying process, than fish preserved (or salted) by other means. A global recommendation about consumption of Cantonese-style salted fish has not been made, as this type of fish is consumed only in specific parts of the world.

Nevertheless, the Panel advises that Cantonese-style salted fish should not be consumed. This advice is supported by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) who found sufficient evidence to conclude that Chinese-style salted fish causes cancer of the nasopharynx and sufficient evidence linking it with stomach cancer.

Mechanisms

There are common mechanisms involved in the links between red and processed meat and colorectal cancer, including:

Cooking meats at high temperatures, prolonged exposure to heat, and cooking by grilling (broiling) and barbecuing result in the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The latter is created by cooking over a flame, these flames contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that stick to the surface of food. Consuming HAs and PAHs has been linked to colorectal cancer development in experimental studies.
Haem iron, which is present at high levels in red and processed meat, promotes colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. Processed meat is also a source of exogenously derived N-nitroso compounds.

Implications for other diseases

A strong body of scientific evidence links consumption of red and processed meat with risk of death from coronary vascular disease and type 2 diabetes.

Prospective cohort studies and randomised controlled trials have shown that dietary patterns that include a lower intake of meat, processed meat, and processed poultry are associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease in adults.

Moderate evidence indicates that these eating patterns are also associated with reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.

Processed meats are often high in salt, which can increase the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease mortality.

Public health / policy implications

A whole-of-government, whole-of-society approach is necessary to create environments for people and communities that are conducive to limiting consumption of red meat and processed meat.

A comprehensive package of policies is needed to support people to consume diversified diets, including limited red meat and little, if any, processed meat, consistent with our Cancer Prevention Recommendations.

This includes policies that influence the food environment, the food system, and behaviour change communication across the life course. Globally, food systems that are directed towards foods of plant rather than animal origin are more likely to contribute to a sustainable ecological environment. Policymakers are encouraged to frame specific goals and actions according to their national context.

Read our policy action for cancer prevention